New English презентация

The formation of the national literary English language covers the Early NE period (1475—1660).
Two major external factors which favoured the rise of the national language and the literary standards: the unification of the country and the progress of culture.
New economic relations began to take shape. The villain was gradually superseded by the rent-paying tenant.

While feudal relations were decaying, bourgeois relations and the capitalist mode of production were developing rapidly.
Britain began to export woolen cloth produced by the first big enterprises, the "manufactures".
The new nobility, who traded in wool, fused with the rich townspeople to form a new class, the bourgeoisie.

Economic and social changes were accompanied by political unification. In the last quarter of the 15th c. England became a centralized state.
After Hundred Years' War there was even more turbulent period for Britain.
Warlike nobles fought for power at the King's Court - Wars of the Roses (1455—1485).
The 30-year contest for the possession of the crown ended in the establishment of a strong royal power under Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor dynasty.

Henry VIII (1509—1547), who quarreled with the Pope, declared himself head of the English Church and dissolved the monasteries (the English Reformation, 1529—1536).
The consolidation of people into nation, the formation of national language and the growth of superdialect forms of language to be used as a national Standard.

Henry VIII assembled at his court a group of brilliant scholars and artists.
The influence of classical languages on English grew and was reflected in the enrichment of the vocabulary.
"Artificial writing" as printing was then called, was invented in Germany in 1438 (by Johann Gutenberg); the first printer of English books was William Caxton (1422-1491).
The first English book, printed in Bruges in 1475, was Caxton’s translation of the story of Troy “RECUYELL OF THE HISTORYES OF TROYE

In 1475 – the year of the publication of the first English book – William Caxton introduced the printing press in England. By 1640 55.000 books had been printed in England.
Both Caxton and his associates took a greater interest in the works of medieval literature than in the works of ancient authors or theological and scientific treatises.
William Caxton and his successors edited publications so as to bring them into conformity with the London form of English used by their contemporaries.

In NE some consonants were vocalised or gave birth to diphthongs and triphthongs.
[r] was vocalised at the end of the word in the 16th -17th c.
[j] disappeared as a result of palatalisation;
[j] remained only initially (e.g. year, yard, etc.); [х, х’] were lost (e.g. ME taughte [‘tauхtə] – NE taught [to:t], ME night [niх’t] – NE night [neit]
[kn] à [n] (e.g. ME know [knou] – NE know [nou]);
[gn] à [n] (e.g. ME gnat [gnat] – NE gnat [næt]);

THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT
All Middle English long vowels underwent the Great Vowel Shift (in early new English, 15th – 18th century). They became more narrow and more front. Some of them remained monophthongs, others developed into diphthongs.
Middle English New English
he [he:] [hi:] e: → i:
name [na:me] [neim] a: → ei
take [ta:ka]–[teik]; beat [be:t]–[bi:t]; meet [me:t]–[mi;t]; like [li:ka]–[laik]; boat [bo:t]–[bout]; tool [to:l]–[tu:l]; house [hu:s]–[haus]
The seven long, or tense, vowels of Middle English underwent the following change.

[i:] and [u:] became diphthongs [aj] and [aw], while the long vowels underwent an increase in tongue height. In addition, [ɛ ] was fronted to become [i:].
Both of the long (or tense) mid vowels of Middle English, which can represent by /ē/ and /ō/ were raised and diphthongized to yield the current high vowels /i/ and /u/
feet (once pronounced /fēt/, now pronounced /fit/) and mood (once pronounced /mōd/, now pronounced /mud/).

The current orthography still reflects the former pronunciation in spellings such as five (once pronounced /fīv/, now pronounced /faiv/). As for the spelling of Old English tūne for “town”, the vowel had been pronounced /ū/ before the diphthong /aʊ/ was created.
Two of the long low vowels, /æ/ and /ɔ/, were also raised to yield a new set of mid vowels, /ei/ and /oʊ/, respectively
mate /meit/ was formerly pronounced /mæt/
goat /goʊt/ was formerly pronounced /g ɔt/

Alternating forms of morphemes in English:
please – pleasant; serene – serenity;
sane – sanity; crime – criminal; sign – signal.
Before the Great Vowel Shift, the vowels in each pair were the same. The vowels in the second word of each pair were shortened by the Early Middle English Vowel Shortening rule.

EFFECT OF VOWEL SHIFT IN MODERN ENGLISH

PHONETICS
The system of stress
Native English words are short – a rhythmic tendency of the language to have one stressed syllable and one unstressed one → in borrowed words there developed a system of two stressed syllables: ‘conso’lation .
Sometimes the stress is used to differentiate the words formed from the same root by the process (to pro'duce – 'produce).

Vowels
a) Loss of vowels at the end of the words. Some of them were preserved for phonetic reasons only, where the pronunciation without a vowel was impossible.
The plural forms of nouns:
Old English Middle English New English
-as -es [z] dogs
[s] cats
[iz] dresses

GRAMMAR
The strengthening of analytical features of the language: in many more cases empty grammatical words are used (form-words);
Analytical forms of the Middle English are preserved, non-finite analytical forms appear (in Middle English only finite forms could be analytical);
A fixed word order is established.

WORD-STOCK
Ways of enriching the vocabulary:
inner means (conversion: hand → to hand);
outer means. direct and indirect contacts with the world.
In the beginning of the Early New English (15th – 16th century) – the epoch of the Renaissance – there are many borrowings from Greek, Italian, Latin.

The Renaissance Period.
Significant developments in science, art and culture.
Revival of interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and other languages. Hence, there occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings.
In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. B.C.), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (e.g. major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create).

The loan-words from the Parisian dialect of French known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinée, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc.
Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e.g. piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel.

The authors of the numerous books printed in England used many Greek and Latin words, and as a result, many words of ancient Greek and Latin entered the language.
From Greek came drama, comedy, tragedy, scene.
Latin loan words in English are numerous. They include: bonus, scientific, exit, aquarium, describe.

Many of them formed the basis for international terminology:
e.g. Latin borrowings: facsimile, introvert, radioactive, relativity, etc.;
Greek borrowings: allergy, antibiotic, hormone, protein, stratosphere, etc.
Many of them increased the number synonyms in English:

The 17th century is the period of Restoration → borrowings come to the English language from French.
In the 17th century the English appear in America → borrowings from the Indians’ languages are registered. (moccasin, toboggan)
In the 18th century the English appear in India → borrowings from this source come to the English language (ex.: curry).
In the 19th century the English colonisers appear in Australia and New Zealand → new borrowings follow (kangaroo).

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century the English appear in Africa, coming to the regions formerly colonized by the Dutch → borrowings from Afrikaans and Dutch appear.
Russian borrowings appear in New English in the 20th century – soviet, kolkhoz, perestroika, etc.
The scientific and technological advances of the 20th century brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik.