Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) презентация

Discussion Focus
Definition of Second Language Acquisition
Overview of Contemporary SLA Theories
A Basic Model of SLA (key elements)
Reflect on Practical Application and Implications of SLA Theory and Research

A Definition of the SLA
Developed over the last 40 years.
SLA is the study of how learners create a new language system in the second/ foreign language learning contexts.
Researchers are mainly interested in:
the processes involved in the acquisition of an L2;
the internal and external factors that might affect aquisition.

SLA addresses 2 fundamental questions:
How do the learners internalise the linguistic system of another language?
How do the learners make use of that linguistic system during comprehension (understanding) and speech production?

SLA theories have been grouped from various different perspectives:
Rationalist – humans have an inborn ability to develop language; we are genetically programmed;
Linguistic – the system underlying the grammar and construction (competence) of L2;
Cognitive – how the human brainprocesses and generates new information; how L2 learners access linguistic knowledge;
Psycholinguistic – how L2 learners process information, organise and use knowledge;
Sociolinguistic – how social factors change L2 knowledge.

SLA is multidisciplinary
Linguistics
Applied linguistics
Psycholinguistics
Psychology
Education, etc.
Learners acquire L2 through a number of interactive factors:
exposure to language input;
making use of the linguistic knowledge of the native language;
accessing universal properties.

The Nature of Language
Lexicon - vocabulary
Phonology – sound patterns
Morphology – word building
Syntax – sentence structure
Pragmatics – how context determines meaning
Sociolinguistics – how society affects language
Discourse – how sentences are connected.

Theories of SLA
Behaviourism.
Universal Grammar Theory.
Monitor Theory.
Interaction Hypothesis.
Processability Theory.
6. Input Processing Theory.
7. Skill acquisition Theory.
8. Emergentism.
9. Declarative and Procedural Model.
10. Complexity Theory.
11. Sociocultural Theory.

Behaviourism
When: the 1940s and 50s
Who: Skinner (1957)
Claims:
Human and animal learning are the same.
The child’s mind – tabula rasa.
All behaviour is a response to stimuli, in associative chains.
Language – a progressive accumulation of habits and the goal is error-free production.

Behaviourism
L1 – an obstacle to L2, because of interference errors.
Contrastive analysis (Lado 1957) – approach to SLA research
Central concepts: positive and negative transfer.
Criticism: Corder (1967) only a small percentage of L2 errors can be traced to the L1 influence.
L2 learning is verbal habit formation: learners move from form to meaning.
Thus certain conditions are needed for SLA:
Imitation and repetition of the language heard;
Imitation has to be rewarded;
As a result of the above, the behaviour is strengthened, reinforced and finally becomes habitual.

Universal Grammar Theory
When: the 1960s and 70s
Who: Chomsky (1975)
Claims:
Humans possess innate knowledge of language universals (UG) and pronciples which regulate L acquisition.
The UGs are modified according to the input received.
Learners have an internal syllabus to follow which determines both L1 and L2 acquisition.
The information inside our mind (innate universal gr system) affects L2 development (interlanguage development).
Basis for the claim: learners sometimes make projections about the language they learn that are beyond the information they are supposed to know.

Universal Grammar Theory
The role of the teacher is to present ‘linguistic data’.
The learners react to and manipulate the data and thus develop a mental representation of the new language.
The teachers should provide good linguistic input which interacts with the learner’s internal innate grammar.
The question arises: do the learners at different stages of their lives have the same or different access to their UG systems?

Monitor Theory
When: the 1980s
Who: Krashen
Claims:
L2 is acquired through exposure to comprehensible input in a similar way to how they acquired L1.
Grammar features are acquired in a specific order (order of acquisition), regardless of their L1.
During SLA, learners develop 2 systems that are independent of each other: the acquisition system (unconscious and implicit) which becomes active when we communicate; and the learning system (conscious and explicit), which acts as a monitor and corrector of production.
Comprehensible input must be slightly above their proficiency level (i+1) and learning has to take place in a relaxed context.

Monitor Theory
Implications for language teaching:
Instructors should provide learners with a rich variety of comprehensible input and opportunities to use language spontaneously and meaningfully.
Input should be supported by gestures, pictures, and illustration of all kind.
Grammar instruction does not have any impact on L acquisition.
Much of L2 acquisition happens by chance and naturally when learners focus on meaning.

Interaction Hypothesis
When: the early 1980s
Who: Long, Gass
Claims
Input means the language the learners ‘meet’, and it is an essential element for learners to make linguistic hypotheses. Input can be interactional (e.g. 2 speakers) or non-interactional (e.g. announcements).
Interaction will modify input.
The meaning is negotiated: initial breakdown of communication will be repaired by subsequent adjustment.
Corrective feedback is used to support SLA: directly or indirectly.
Output is necessary for the learners to produce to express meaning.

Interaction Hypothesis
Implications for language teaching:
A new classroom dynamic – interaction, new roles.
Communication should consider L2 linguistic properties and its application in everyday life.
Grammar instruction might be beneficial to help learners to understand the formal properties of the language so that input would be enhanced.

Processability Theory
When: the 1990s
Who: Pieneman
Claims
Learner output (speech) processing procedures emerge over time in a predictable order. They are subconscious and cannot be skipped.
SLA can be broken down into stages. L2 learners can only produce the linguistic forms for which they have acquired the necessary processing capabilities.
Learners might display individual variation in the extent to which they apply developmental rules.

Processability Theory
Implications for language teaching:
The role of instruction is limited and influenced by the learner’s readiness to acquire a particular structure.
Instruction might be detrimental to acquisition if the learner’s psycholinguistic readiness is not considered.

Input Processing Theory
When: the 1990s
Who: VanPatten
Claims:
When learners are exposed to L2 input, only a small proportion of that input becomes intake because
Our capacity to process information is limited;
We use many processing strategies to cope with the information.
Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form.
Learners analyse sentences relying on word order, employing a first noun processing strategy, which gives the first noun or pronoun that they meet subject status. ˃ Delay in syntax acquisition.

Input Processing Theory
Implications for language teaching:
Grammar instruction should be aimed at changing the way input is perceived.
Grammar input should move from structured input to structured output.

Skills Acquisition Theory
When: the beginning of the 21st century
Who: DeKeyser
Claims:
SLA happens by exposure to input through L2 learner’s ability to process information and build networks of associations.
SLA here means moving from a controlled mode of operation (declarative knowledge) to automatic mode (procedural knowledge) through repeated practice.
The theory applies if 4 conditions are met:
adult learners are of high aptitude;
structures are simple to be learned;
learners are in early stages of learning;
context is instructional.

Skills Acquisition Theory
Implications for language teaching:
Learners need to be taught explicitly.
Learners need to practice various grammatical features and skills until they are well established.

Emergentism
When: the beginning of the 21st century
Who: Ellis
Claims:
SLA is governed by the same type of processes and principles that govern other aspects of human knowledge.
SLA is a dynamic process where a number of elements operate and cause the emergence (appearance) and development of L2.
SLA is an implicit process where frequent input plays a key role. The two other features that are important for language performance are recency and context.
Language emerges over time as a result of cognitive learning mechanisms, interacting with data gathered from the learner’s environment.

Emergentism
Implications for language teaching:
Learners must be exposed to real and natural settings frequently and regularly. The more knowledge they gain of the L2, the more interaction they initiate and become involved in.
The role of grammar instruction is limited and not always effective, but it can help learners to notice L2 forms.

Declarative and Procedural Model
When: the beginning of the 21st century
Who: Ullmann
Claims:
There are two independent but sometimes overlapping memory systems in the brain: declarative and procedural memory.
Declarative memory is mostly responsible for the acquisition of vocabulary and stock phrases.
Procedural memory is used for implicit learning of grammar.
Implications for language teaching:
Neither learning nor practicing grammar rules is likely to promote spontaneous use of those rules.
Learning words and phrases may lead to spontaneous utterances.

Complexity Theory
When: beginning of the 21st century
Who: Larsen-Freeman
Claims
Dynamic systems evolve from chaos into order.
SLA is not just processing and internalising data. It is very important to understand how learners use linguistic knowledge and how that is influenced by context.
Interaction with the environment, the context, and the variability of learning outcomes among L2 learners are key features of this theory.
Language components interact with the L2 system through a meaning-making process.

Complexity Theory
Implications for language teaching:
Instructors should throw the language system into initial chaos, out of which will emerge a system that reflects L2.
Exposure to input is important, as is social participation.
The theory acknowledges the psycholinguistic perspective.
It does not explain how the language system emerges.

Sociocultural Theory
When: 1985
Who: Wertsch, Vygotsky, Lantolf, Thorne, Poehner
Claims
The central concepts of SLA are mediation, zone of proximal development (ZPD) and verbal thought.
Mediation: humans have certain cultural tools which they use to control and interact with their environment.
ZPD: the level of performance which the learner is capable of when there is support from negotiation with an expert or an adult (Vygotsky 1978).
Verbal thought: SLA includes language function development, mental function development and the combination of language and thought. It is a process where the low level external/ social speech develops into the highest level inner speech or verbal thought.

Sociocultural Theory
All learning takes place as people participate in culturally formed settings. These settings shape the most important cognitive activities in which people engage. Social interaction plays a crucial role in cognitive development: social learning precedes development.
A knowledgeable participant – can promote the development of the one with less knowledge.
Learners use tools to interact with the environment. The tools the individuals have and their situations are different. The tools also have their limits.

Sociocultural Theory
Implications for language teaching:
Instruction is crucial to L2 development in the classroom.
Instruction should be geared to the ZPD just beyond the learner’s development level.
During instruction, learners develop an awareness of the structure and function of the language by using it socially. The environment gives the context and helps to understand the language’s grammatical properties.

A Model for SLA

ReaL World Applications
The internal and implicit processes responsible for language acquisition are similar regardless of learners’ L1.
Learners require extensive exposure to L2 input in order to build their internal new linguistic systems.
Interaction with other speakers is a key factor in acquisition.
Acquisition requires learners to make form-function connections.
Most researchers believe that L2 acquisition is first and foremost developing implicit knowledge.
Language acquisition requires opportunities for output practice.

References and Further Reading
Atkinson, D. (ed.) 2011. Alternative Approaches in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge.
Benati, A. 2013. Issues in Second Language Teaching. Sheffield: Equinox Publishing.
Benati, A., Angelovska, T. 2016. Second Language Acquisition. A Theoretical Introduction to Real World Appplications. London: Bloomsbury.
Gass, S.M., and Selinker, L. 2008. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. New York: Routledge.
Robinson, P. (ed.) 2012. Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge.
Ortega, L. (ed) 2015. Second Language Acquisition. London: Routledge.
Ortega, L., Cumming, A. , Ellis, N. C. (eds.) 2013. Agendas for Language Learning Research. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
VanPatten, B., Benati, A. 2015. key Terms in second Language Acquisition. London: Bloomsbury.
VanPatten, B., Williams, J. (eds) 2015. Theories in second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.