Measuring and mapping cultures презентация

Ronald Inglehart

Traditional/Secular-rational values
The contrast between societies in which religion is very important and those in which it is not.
Societies near the traditional pole emphasize the importance of parent-child ties and deference to authority, along with absolute standards and traditional family values, and reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride, and a nationalistic outlook.
Societies with secular-rational values have the opposite preferences on all of these topics.

Survival – Self-Expression Values
The unprecedented wealth that has accumulated in advanced societies during the past generation means that an increasing share of the population has grown up taking survival for granted.
Thus, priorities have shifted from an overwhelming emphasis on economic and physical security toward an increasing emphasis on subjective well-being, self-expression and quality of life.
Value change progressing from constraint to choice
is a central aspect of Human Development because this value
change makes people mentally free, motivating them to
develop, unfold, and actualize their inner human potentials.

The Two-Dimensional Value Space in Theory

The Two-Dimensional Value Space in Reality

Cultural Value Orientations
Shalom H. Schwartz

All societies confront basic problems in regulating human activity
Societal responses to basic problems emphasize certain values and sacrifice others
Prevailing value emphases in society express cultural orientations most directly (cf. Inglehart, Hofstede)
Values are underlying conceptions of good & desirable (e.g., success, justice, freedom, order)
Evolution of Cultural Value Emphases

Embeddedness-Autonomy
In Autonomous cultures people are autonomous, bounded entities. They are encouraged to cultivate and express their own preferences, feelings, ideas, and abilities, and find meaning in their own uniqueness.
There are two types of autonomy: Intellectual autonomy: own ideas and intellectual directions independently (broadmindedness, curiosity, creativity). Affective autonomy: affectively positive experience for themselves (pleasure, exciting life, varied life).
In embedded cultures people are entities embedded in the collectivity.
Meaning in life comes through social relationships, identifying with the group, participating in its shared way of life, and striving toward its shared goals. Maintaining the status quo and restraining actions that might disrupt in-group solidarity or the traditional order. Important values are social order, respect for tradition, security, obedience, and wisdom.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE
Ideal Individual / Group Relationship
People: role players embedded in groups
Individuals inde-pendent actors

Hierarchy - Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism induces people to recognize one another as moral equals who share basic interests as human beings.
People are socialized to act for the benefit of others as a matter of choice.
Important values: equality, social justice, responsibility, help, honesty.
Hierarchy relies on hierarchical systems of ascribed roles to insure responsible, productive behavior.
Unequal distribution of power, roles, and resources are legitimate and even desirable.
People are socialized to take the hierarchical distribution of roles for granted, to comply with the obligations and rules attached to their roles, to show deference to superiors and expect deference from subordinates.
Important values: social power, authority, humility, and wealth.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE
Ideal way to elicit productive, cooperative, activity in society
Hierarchical alloca-tion roles/resources legitimate/desirable
Socialize: Others morally equal
transcend selfish interests
cooperate voluntarily

Mastery-Harmony
Harmony emphasizes fitting into the social and natural world, trying to appreciate and accept rather than to change, direct, or exploit.
Important values: world at peace, unity with nature, protecting the environment, and accepting one’s portion.
Mastery encourages active self-assertion in order to master, direct, and change the natural and social environment to attain group or personal goals.
Important values: ambition, success, daring, self-sufficiency, and competence.

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: PROTOTYPICAL STRUCTURE
Regulate use of human and natural resources
fit harmoniously, avoid change & self-assertion
master, control, change through assertive action

Data and Sources
77 cultural groups, 74 countries, N=55,022
Dominant cultural group: average of teachers & students in most
45 value items with near equivalent meaning in within-country analyses
a priori items to index 7 orientations validated in culture level analysis

Cultural Map of World Regions
MASTERY
West
Europe
INTELLECTUAL AUTONOMY
EGALITARIANISM
English Speaking
AFFECTIVE AUTONOMY
HARMONY
Confucian
HIERARCHY
Muslim
Middle
East &
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Latin America
South & South East Asia
EMBEDDEDNESS
East-Central & Baltic Europe Prot/Cath
East Europe
Orthodox

Basic Human Values
S.Schwartz

Defining Characteristics of Basic Values
Shared
beliefs about the desirable
motivational goals
transcend specific actions and situations
criteria of judgment
hierarchical order: priorities
Differentiated
type of motivation

Why are basic values important?
motivate choice of behavior--what we do
justify past behavior--why we did it
standards to evaluate people & events-- who and what we like, underlie our attitudes
direct attention and perception--what we notice
can serve as social indicators—reflect fundamental societal change

Deriving Universal Value Contents
Content of values derives from basic goals people in all societies must pursue
needs of biological organism--e.g. hedonism
demands of social interaction--e.g. achievement
requirements for group survival--e.g. security
People communicate to gain cooperation in pursuing their goals
Values: Socially approved language of goals
Not culture specific—based in pan-human requirements

Prevention of loss Promotion of gain
Self-protection Self-expansion/growth
Personal Focus
Social Focus
Anxiety-based Anxiety-free
Dynamic Roots of Value Structure
Achievement
Power
Self-
Enhancement
Openness
Hedonism
Stimulation
Self-Direction
Security
Conformity
Tradition
Conservation
Self-Transcendence
Universalism
Benevolence

Deriving Etic Values
List of items drawn from
Past value questionnaires
Lists of motivations in literature
Texts of all major religions and philosophers
Items to express each value concept
Collaborators invited to add items to tap values left out
Assess if added items yield other basic values or fall in expected basic values

Measurement: SVS
In this questionnaire you are to ask yourself: "What values are important to ME as guiding principles in MY life, and what values are less important to me?" Your task is to rate how important each value is for you as a guiding principle in your life. Use the rating scale below:
AS A GUIDING PRINCIPLE IN MY LIFE, this value is:
opposed of
to my not very supreme
values important important important importance
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Before you begin, read the values, choose the one that is most important to you ….that is most opposed to your values…. Then rate the rest of the values.
1 EQUALITY (equal opportunity for all)
2 INNER HARMONY (at peace with myself)
3 SOCIAL POWER (control over others, dominance)
4 PLEASURE (gratification of desires)

Portrait Value Quest. Exemplary Items and Response Scale
How much like you is this person?

Some Correlates of Value Priorities
delinquency, bullying, drug use
voting: liberal/conservative
choose to study econ., business
charismatic leadership
developing leadership
adopting technological innovations
readiness to work w/ out-groups
authoritarianism & nationalism
egalitarian gender atts
risky sexual behavior
ST/HE vs BE/CO
UN/SD vs. SE/PO
PO/AC vs BE
AC/PO vs TR
SD/UN vs SE/TR/PO
ST/SD vs SE/TR/CO
UN/ST vs PO/SE
SD/UN vs PO/SE/CO
SD/UN vs CO/TR
ST/HE vs SE/CO/TR
SD
UN
ST
BE
HE
AC
PO
CO
SE
TR

More Correlates of Value Priorities
Environmentally friendly behavior
Independence of counseling clients
Worrying about meaning in own life
Subjective well-being (+ affect)
Creativity (verbal, artistic)
Identifying with one’s nation
Religious belief &behavior
Interpersonal violence
Helping and altruism
UN/BE vs PO
SD/ST vs SE/TR/CO
ST/HE/PO vs UN/BE/TR
SD/AC/HE vs TR/SE/PO
SD/UN vs SE/TR/CO
CO vs SD
TR/CO/SE vs ST/HE/SD
PO vs UN/BE/CO
UN/BE vs PO
SD
UN
ST
BE
HE
AC
PO
CO
SE
TR

Political Activism & Efficacy
There are different ways of trying to improve things or to stop things from going wrong in [Israel]. During the last 12 months, have you done any of the following?
Contacted a politician, government or local government official
Worked in a political party or action group
Worked in another organisation or association
Worn or displayed a campaign badge/sticker
Signed a petition
Taken part in a lawful public demonstration
Boycotted certain products
Deliberately bought certain products for political, ethical or environmental reasons
Donated money to a political organisation or group
Efficacy: How able are you to:
take an active role in a group involved with political issues?
make up your mind on political issues?

Values
Value Predictions?

Refining the Values Theory: Why?
Theory arbitrarily split circular continuum
Objectives in modifying the theory
Increase precision of explanation
Increase predictive power
Better capture the motivational circle of values
10 values combined diverse facets (e.g., security)
e.g., Measure in millimeters, not centimeters

Newly Discriminated Values

Applications
19 values permit detailed prediction & explanation of attitudes & behavior
Other research topics with values (selected)
Relations to personality, subjective & objective well-being
Value change & transmission (generational, immigration, etc.)
Person-environment fit; value congruence & social cohesion
Childhood development of value structure & priorities
Value measurement—instruments, reliability, invariance
Genetic bases of value priorities
Values as mediators and moderators (e.g.)
Mediate: Do values mediate effects of age on voting? Gender on violence?
Moderate: Does the association of patriotism with life satisfaction depend on the level of conformity-rules values?

Social axioms
A Social Axioms Survey bases on interview protocols, and factor analysis of responses to this survey revealed a similar five-factor structure within each of five cultures: Hong Kong, Venezuela, the USA, Japan, and Germany.

“Social axioms are generalized beliefs about oneself, the social and physical environment, or the spiritual world, and are in the form of an assertion about the relationship between two entities or concepts.” (Leung et al. (2002)
A typical social axiom has the structure - A is related to B, where A and B may be any entities, and the relationship between them may be causal or correlational. Social axioms differ from values, which assume the form, "A is good/desirable/important". Social axioms are also different from normative beliefs or assertions, which are prescriptive in nature. “We should help the poor” is a normative assertion, not a social axiom.
Some examples of social axioms:
People keep from lying only for fear of being exposed.
All is sold and bought in this world.
There do not exist women (men) whose sympathies cannot be won.
Great knowledge is acquired by little by little.
Being flexible in life is an indication of intelligence.
Every person needs an approach of his or her own.
A way out can be found in any situation.

Universal model of Social Axioms (Bond, Leung et al, 2004)
Religiosity

Social Cynicism refers to a negative view of human nature, a view that life produces unhappiness, that people exploit others, and a mistrust of social institutions.
Social Complexity refers to the belief in multiple ways of achieving a given outcome, and agreement that human behavior is variable across situations.
Reward for Application refers to a general belief that effort, knowledge, and careful planning will lead to positive results.

4. Spirituality (subsequently renamed Religiosity in Leung & Bond, 2004) refers to a belief in the reality of a supreme being and the positive functions of religious practice.
5. Fate Control refers to a belief that life events are pre-determined and that there are ways for people to influence these fated outcomes. These five, orthogonal dimensions of social axioms have been confirmed, and their constituent, defining items established in 41 national groups (Leung & Bond, 2004).

Factor 1 Dynamic Externality combines items from four of the factors previously identified across cultures at the individual-level: reward for application (10 items), religiosity (8 items), fate control (2 items), and social complexity (1 item). There are elements of religiosity and fate in this factor, which give rise to the label “externality”, but the emphasis on effort and control gives a dynamic quality to this construct.
Factor 2 is defined by 11 items, and is labeled Societal Cynicism, because all of them are from the individual-level factor of social cynicism.
As constituted by these sets of 21 and 10 items, these two factors correlated with each other at a low level, r(39)=.21, ns.
Social axioms dimensions

Societal cynicism
associates with:
a larger number of persons per room,
higher growth competitiveness, long-term orientation,
more alcohol consumption,
less voter turnout,
more frequent access to the internet.
lower job satisfaction,
lower satisfaction with one’s company,
lower life satisfaction,
lower hedonic balance (positive affect minus negative affect),
and a faster pace of life

Societal cynicism
lower level of conscientiousness (a factor in the big-five personality model concerning with competence, order, dutifulness, self-discipline, deliberation, and the will to achieve);
a rejection of the view that leadership is based on charisma and values, and team-orientation,
an acceptance of self-protective leadership and of autonomous leadership.
more disagreement within in-groups,
a stronger belief in exerting an amount of effort that is proportional to the pay received,
lower church attendance,
lower achievement via conformity.

Dynamic Externality
Countries higher in dynamic externality have
higher daytime temperature,
more males than females in the population,
higher age dependence ratio (a proportionally larger non-working population),
higher average number of people per room,
higher population growth rate,
lower life expectancy,
higher adult illiteracy rate,
lower level of human development,
lower human rights observance

Dynamic Externality (cnt-d)
lower relative status of woman,
lower political rights and civil liberties,
less unemployment, more work hours per week,
a lower percentage of GDP spent on education and on health,
lower alcohol consumption,
lower capacity for reducing human vulnerability by means of human sustenance and environmental health,
lower social and institutional capacity for environmental sustainability,
lower voter turnout rate, and fewer TV receivers per 1000 inhabitants.
This profile suggests that dynamic externality is generally related to less favorable educational, social, and political development, even after its already lower level of economic development has been controlled for.