Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context презентация

Discussion Question
Do you consider yourself to be an above-average driver?

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
5.1 What is the self-concept, and how does it develop?
5.2 To what extent do people know themselves through introspection, and what are the consequences of introspection?
5.3 In what ways do people come to know themselves by observing their behavior?

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
5.4 In what ways do people use others to know themselves?
5.5 When are people likely to succeed at self-control, and when are they likely to fail?
5.6 How do people portray themselves so that others will see them as they want to be seen?
5.7 What are the pros and cons of having high self- esteem?

The Origins and
Nature of the Self-Concept
5.1 What is the self-concept, and how does it develop?

Self-Concept
The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

Origins of the Self (1 of 2)
Rudimentary Self-Concept
Some primates
Humans at 18 to 24 months

Origins of the Self (2 of 2)
Child’s self-concept
Concrete
References to characteristics like age, sex, neighborhood, and hobbies
Maturing self-concept
Less emphasis on physical characteristics
More emphasis on psychological states and how other people judge us

Figure 5.1
What Do We See as Key Attributes of Other People’s Selves? Participants were asked to imagine that they saw an old friend that they knew when they were 25 years old but had not seen in 40 years. They were given a list of ways in which their friend had changed and rated each one according to how much it would alter their view of their friend’s true self, on a scale that went from 0% (“this change has no impact on his/her true self”) to 100% (“this change completely alters his/her true self”). People thought that changes in their friend’s morality (e.g., how cruel he/she was) would alter his/her true self more than other changes. People thought that changes in perceptual abilities (e.g., changes in vision) would have the smallest impact on their friend’s true self.
(Data from Strohminger & Nichols, 2014)

Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept
(1 of 3)
The squeaky wheel gets the grease.
American proverb
The nail that stands out gets pounded down.
Japanese proverb

Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept
(2 of 3)
Independent View of the Self
Defines self through own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not other people’s
Interdependent View of the Self
Defines self through relationships to other people
Recognizes that others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions affect one’s behavior
Connectedness and interdependence valued

Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept (3 of 3)
Independent View of the Self
Independence and uniqueness valued
Held in many Western cultures
Interdependent View of the Self
Uniqueness frowned on
Held in many Asian and non-Western cultures
But there are also differences within cultures! Not all Westerners are independent and not all Easterners are interdependent.

Choosing a Traditional Role over Career
When Harvard-educated Masako Owada abandoned her promising career to marry Crown Prince Naruhito of Japan and assumed the traditional roles required of her, many Western women questioned her decision. At issue for many was cultural interdependence versus independence of the self.
Source: Tsugufumi Matsumoto/Pool/AP Images

Figure 5.2
Date of Statehood and Frequency of Popular Baby Names
This graph shows selected U.S. states and the year they attained statehood. It can be seen that the more recently a state became part of the union, the less likely parents were to give their children popular names. Researchers view this as evidence that residents of these states have a more independent self-view.
(Based on Varnum & Kitayama, 2011)

Functions of the Self
Four main functions:
Self-knowledge
The way we understand who we are and organize this information
Self Control
The way we make plans and execute decisions
Impression management
The way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us as we want to be seen
Self-esteem
The way we maintain positive views of ourselves

Knowing Ourselves
Through Introspection
5.2 To what extent do people know themselves through introspection, and what are the consequences of introspection?

The Way of Introspection (1 of 2)
Introspection
The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

The Way of Introspection (2 of 2)
People do not rely on introspection very often.
Why not?
Not always pleasant to think about ourselves
Reasons for our feelings and behavior can be outside conscious awareness

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory (1 of 4)
The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory (2 of 4)
Sometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the self.
Focusing on the self can be very aversive.
Ways to turn off “internal spotlight” on oneself:
Alcohol abuse
Binge eating
Sexual masochism

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory (3 of 4)
Not all means of escaping the self are damaging.
Religious expression
Spirituality

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory (4 of 4)
Self-focus is not always damaging or aversive.
Example: if you have experienced a major success
Can also remind you of your sense of right and wrong

Figure 5.3
Self-Awareness Theory: The Consequences of Self-Focused Attention
When people focus on themselves, they compare their behavior to their internal standards.
(Adapted from Carver & Scheier, 1981)

Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know (1 of 3)
It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we do.
What is it about your sweetheart that made you fall in love?
How much does sleep affect your state of mind?
What really determines what mood you’re in?

Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know (2 of 3)
College students recorded daily moods every day for 5 weeks (Wilson, Laser, & Stone, 1982)
Kept track of things that might predict their moods
Weather, workload, sleep
Students estimated how their mood was affected by these variables
Overall, inaccurate with what predicted their mood

Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know (3 of 3)
Causal Theories
Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture.
Problem
Schemas and theories are not always correct. Can lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our actions.

The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons (1 of 2)
Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize

The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons (2 of 2)
Problem
Focus on things that are easy to put into words
Ignore feelings harder to explain
Hard-to-explain feelings are the ones that often matter in the long run

Liz Lemon Makes a List
In an episode of the TV program 30 Rock, Liz Lemon (played by Tina Fey) made a list of the reasons why she liked and disliked her boyfriend Dennis (played by Dean Winters). According to research on self-generated attitude change, the act of making this list might have changed her mind about how she felt, at least temporarily.
Source: Patricia Schlein/PS3 WENN Photos/Newscom

Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior
5.3 In what ways do people come to know themselves by observing their behavior?

Self-Perception Theory (1 of 2)
Self-Perception Theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

Self-Perception Theory (2 of 2)
Infer inner feelings from behavior
Only when not sure how we feel
People judge whether their behavior
Really reflects how we feel
Or the situation that made us act that way

Peanuts Cartoon

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
(1 of 4)
Intrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity because of enjoyment and interest, not external rewards or pressures
Extrinsic Motivation
Engage in an activity because of external reasons, not because of enjoyment and interest

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
(2 of 4)
Many teachers or parents reward kids for good grades with compliments, candy, gold stars, or toys.
Other programs reward kids for reading books.
But do these programs increase or decrease a child’s love of reading?

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
(3 of 4)
We have to consider the effects of rewards on people’s thoughts about:
Themselves
Their self-concept
Their motivation to read in the future
Danger of reward programs
Reading for rewards, not because it’s actually enjoyable

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
(4 of 4)
Overjustification Effect
The tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

Figure 5.4
The Over justification Effect
During the initial baseline phase, researchers measured how much time elementary school students played math games. During the reward program, they rewarded the children with prizes for playing with the games. When the rewards were no longer offered (during the follow-up phase), the children played with the games even less than they had during the baseline phase, indicating that the rewards had lowered their intrinsic interest in the games.
(Adapted from Greene, Sternberg, & Lepper, 1976)

Preserving Intrinsic Interest (1 of 2)
Task-contingent rewards
Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
Performance-contingent rewards
Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

Preserving Intrinsic Interest (2 of 2)
Avoiding over-justification when using rewards
Rewards will undermine interest only if interest was initially high.
The type of reward makes a difference.
Performance-contingent rewards are less damaging to intrinsic interest

Mindsets and Motivation
Fixed mindset
The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
Growth mindset
The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
Mindset affects motivation
Fixed mindset more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure

Sally Forth Cartoon

Understanding Our Emotions: The
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (1 of 3)
Example
Consider how happy, angry, or afraid you feel at any given time.
How do you know which emotion you are experiencing?
Don’t we know how we feel without having to think about it?

Understanding Our Emotions: The
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (2 of 3)
Stanley Schachter (1964)
Experience of emotion is similar to other types of self-perception
Infer our emotions by observing our behavior

Understanding Our Emotions: The
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (3 of 3)
Schachter’s theory
We experience emotions in a two-step self-perception process:
Experience physiological arousal.
Seek an appropriate explanation for it.

Figure 5.5
The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
People first experience physiological arousal and then attach an explanation to it.

Schachter and Singer, 1962 (1 of 4)
Research Question
Given the same degree of physiological arousal, will people “feel” different emotions depending on their environment?

Schachter and Singer, 1962 (2 of 4)
Cover Story: Injection of “Suproxin” test of vision
IV 1: Physiological Arousal
epinephrine informed
(shake, heart pound, face flush)
epinephrine ignorant
(mild, harmless, no side effects)
Placebo
(saline, mild, harmless, no side effects)

Schachter and Singer, 1962 (3 of 4)
Cover Story: Injection of “Suproxin” test of vision
IV 2: Environmental Cues (Mood of “Stooge”)
Euphoric/happy (playing games)
Angry (insulting questionnaire)
DV = Participant’s mood

Schachter and Singer, 1962 (4 of 4)
Results
Epinephrine-informed group
Did not become angry when exposed to angry stooge
Had alternate explanation for their arousal (the drug)
Epinephrine-ignorant group
Became euphoric
Joined stooge in playing games

Implications of the Two-Factor
Theory of Emotion
Implications
Emotions are somewhat arbitrary.
Emotions depend on our explanations for arousal.

Finding the Wrong Cause:
Misattribution of Arousal (1 of 2)
To what extent do the results found by Schachter and Singer (1962) generalize to everyday life?
Do people form mistaken emotions in the same way as participants in that study did?
In everyday life, one might argue, people usually know why they are aroused.

Finding the Wrong Cause:
Misattribution of Arousal (2 of 2)
Misattribution of Arousal
Making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone).

Is It the Bridge, or Are You in Love?
When people are aroused for one reason, such as occurs when they cross a scary bridge, they often attribute this arousal to the wrong source—such as attraction to the person they are with.
Source: Omika/Fotolia

Figure 5.6
Misattribution of Arousal
When a woman approached men on a scary bridge and asked them to fill out a questionnaire, a high percentage of them were attracted to her and called her for a date. When the same woman approached men after they had crossed the bridge and had rested, relatively few called her for a date.
(Adapted from Dutton & Aron, 1974)

Using Other People
to Know Ourselves
5.4 In what ways do people use others to know themselves?

Self-Concept Does Not Develop in
a Solitary Context
Self-concept shaped by people around us

Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (1 of 5)
How do we use others to define ourselves?
Measure our own abilities and attitudes by comparing to other people.
If you donate $50 to charity and find out your friend donates $10, you can feel generous.
If you find out your friend donated $100, you might not feel as generous!

Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (2 of 5)
Social Comparison Theory
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
The theory revolves around two important questions:
When do you engage in social comparison?
With whom do you choose to compare yourself?

Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (3 of 5)
When do you engage in social comparison?
No objective standard exists to measure against
When we experience uncertainty
Example: New office donation program, not sure what amount would be generous, you are especially likely to compare yourself to others.

Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (4 of 5)
With whom do you choose to compare yourself?
Initial impulse: anyone who is around
Occurs quickly and automatically

Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others (5 of 5)
Goal: know the furthest level to which we can aspire
Upward social comparison:
Comparing to people who are better on a particular ability
Goal: feel better about yourself
Downward social comparison:
Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability

Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views (1 of 2)
We adopt other people’s views in some circumstances
“Looking glass self” (Cooley, 1902)
We see ourselves and the social world through the eyes of other people
Adopt other’s views when we want to get along with them

Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views (2 of 2)
Social Tuning
The process whereby people adopt another person’s attitudes

Figure 5.7
Social Tuning to a Likable Experimenter
Participants took a test of automatic prejudice toward black people, after interacting with an experimenter who was likable or unlikable and wore an antiracism T-shirt or a blank T-shirt. When the experimenter was likable, participants showed less automatic prejudice when she was wearing the antiracism T-shirt than when she was not (the higher the number on the scale, the more the anti-black prejudice). When the experimenter was unlikable, participants reacted against her views: They showed more automatic prejudice when she was wearing the antiracist T-shirt than when she was not. These results show that people tend to automatically adopt the views of people they like, but automatically reject the views of people they do not.
(Adapted from Sinclair, Lowery, Hardin, & Colangelo, 2005)

Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People
Affective Forecasts
People’s predictions about how they will feel in response to a future emotional event
Example: Predicted first date compatibility based on either:
Reading profile of date
Reading about how much another person enjoyed the speed date
Results:
Affective forecasts better when based on other person’s evaluation rather than reading profile

Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self
5.5 When are people likely to succeed at self-control, and when are they likely to fail?

Self-Control: The Executive Function
of the Self (1 of 3)
Self-Control
Making choices about present and plans for the future

Self-Control: The Executive Function
of the Self (2 of 3)
Thought suppression
Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget
Not that efficient!

Self-Control: The Executive Function
of the Self (3 of 3)
Exerting effort on one task limits ability to exert self-control on another task
How can self-control be improved?
Believing willpower is an unlimited resource
Prayer

Impression Management:
All the World’s a Stage
5.6 How do people portray themselves so that others will see them as they want to be seen?

Actors Engaged in
Impression Management
Impression Management
The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

David Duke: From Klansman to Politician
Impression management in action: In the 1970s, David Duke was a leader in the Ku Klux Klan; in 1991, he ran for governor of Louisiana as a mainstream conservative Republican. A remarkable change occurred in Duke’s presentation of self during this time.
Source: (left) Lee Corkran/Sygma/Corbis; (right) Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division

Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping
(1 of 2)
Ingratiation
Flattering, praising, and generally trying to make ourselves likable to another person, often of higher status
Self-handicapping
Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves
If we do poorly on a task, we can avoid blaming ourselves

Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping
(2 of 2)
Self-handicapping
Behavioral self-handicapping
People act in ways that reduce the likelihood of success so that if they fail, they can blame it on obstacles rather than ability
Example: pulling an all-nighter before a test
Reported self-handicapping
Rather than creating obstacles to success, people devise ready-made excuses in case they fail
Example: complaining about not feeling well when you take a test

Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement
Culturally universal
Desire to manage image we present
Cultural differences
Kinds of images we want to present
E.g., “Saving face” is important in Asian cultures

Self-Esteem:
How We Feel About Ourselves
5.7 What are the pros and cons of having high self-esteem?

Self-Esteem:
How We Feel About Ourselves (1 of 3)
Self-Esteem
Overall evaluation (positive or negative) that people have of themselves

Self-Esteem:
How We Feel About Ourselves (2 of 3)
Benefits of high self-esteem:
Buffers against thoughts of own mortality
Terror management theory
Motivates us to persevere when going gets rough

Self-Esteem:
How We Feel About Ourselves (3 of 3)
Narcissism
Combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others
Has increased in college students since the 1980s

Narcissus at the Pool
In Greek mythology, Narcissus fell in love with his own reflection in a pool of water and was so fond of his own image that he couldn’t leave and eventually died. Today, narcissism refers to the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others.
Source: SuperStock/Alamy

Figure 5.8
Are People Becoming More Narcissistic?
The top (red) line shows average scores for college students on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), a common measure of narcissism, from the years 1980 to 2008. The bottom (blue) line shows the percentage of first-person pronouns (e.g., I, me, mine) in the lyrics of the 10 most popular songs of the year from 1980 to 2007. As you can see there has been a steady increase on both measures over time, suggesting that narcissism may be increasing.
(Based on Twenge & Foster, 2010)

Discussion Question Follow-up
Based on the research you read in this chapter, why do you think most people consider themselves to be above-average drivers?