Слайд 2
![Lexical problems As a rule, the object of translation is](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-1.jpg)
Lexical problems
As a rule, the object of translation is not a
list of separate lexical units but a coherent text in which the SL words make up an integral whole.
Слайд 3
![Lexical problems Though each word in the language has its](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-2.jpg)
Lexical problems
Though each word in the language has its own meaning,
the actual information it conveys in a text depends, to a great extent, on its contextual environment.
Слайд 4
![Lexical problems The meaning of any word in the text](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-3.jpg)
Lexical problems
The meaning of any word in the text cannot be
understood and translated without due regard to the specific context in which it is actualized.
Слайд 5
![Lexical problems Some words, however, are less sensitive to the](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-4.jpg)
Lexical problems
Some words, however, are less sensitive to the contextual influence
than others.
There are words with definite meanings, which are retained in most contexts, and are relatively context-free.
Слайд 6
![Handling context-free words Context-free words are mainly found among proper](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-5.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Context-free words are mainly found among proper and geographical
names, titles of magazines and newspapers, names of various firms, org-ns,; ships, aircraft and the like;
Слайд 7
![Handling context-free words among technical terms used by experts in](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-6.jpg)
Handling context-free words
among technical terms used by experts in all fields
of human activity;
the months and days of the week, numerals.
Context-free words have permanent equivalents in TL which, in most cases, can be used in TT.
Слайд 8
![Handling context-free words The permanent equivalents of context-free words are](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-7.jpg)
Handling context-free words
The permanent equivalents of context-free words are often formed
by transcription (with possible elements of translation) or loan translation.
Слайд 9
![Handling context-free words Proper and geographical names are transcribed with](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-8.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Proper and geographical names are transcribed with TL letters,
e.g.: Smith - Смит, Brown - Браун, John Fitzgerald Kennedy - Джон Фитцжеральд Кеннеди; Cleveland - Кливленд, Rhode Island — Род-Айленд, Ontario — Онтарио; Downing Street — Даунинг-стрит, Foley Square — Фоули-сквер.
Слайд 10
![Handling context-free words The same is true about the titles](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-9.jpg)
Handling context-free words
The same is true about the titles of periodicals
and the names of firms and corporations, e.g.: Life-Лайф», US News and World Report — «ЮС ньюс энд уорлд рипорт», General Motors Corporation - «Дженерал моторс корпорейшн», Harriman and Brothers — «Гар-риман энд бразерс», Anaconda Mining Company — «Анаконда майнинг компани».
Слайд 11
![Handling context-free words Transcription is also used to reproduce in](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-10.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Transcription is also used to reproduce in TL the
names of ships, aircraft,missiles and pieces of military equipment: Queen Elisabeth — «Kyин Элизабет», Spitfire — «Спитфайр», Hawk — «Хок», Trident - «Трайдент», Honest John - «Онест Джон».
Слайд 12
![Minor exceptions First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-11.jpg)
Minor exceptions
First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of transliteration
when SL letters are reproduced in TT instead of sounds.
This technique is used with mute and double consonants between vowels or at the end of the word and with neutral vowels
(Dorset —Дорсет, Bonners Ferry —Боннерc Ферри)
Слайд 13
![Minor exceptions as well as to preserve some elements of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-12.jpg)
Minor exceptions
as well as to preserve some elements of SL
spelling so as to make the TL equivalent resemble some familiar pattern (the Hercules missile — ракета «Геркулес»,
Columbia - Колумбия).
Слайд 14
![Minor exceptions Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-13.jpg)
Minor exceptions
Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering the
names of historical personalities and geographical names,
e.g.: Charles I —Карл I, James II — Яков II, William - Вильгельм, Henry - Генрих, George - Георг,
Edinborough — Эдинбург.
Слайд 15
![Handling context-free words Some geographical names are made up of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-14.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Some geographical names are made up of common nouns
and are translated word-for-word:
the United States of America - Соединенные Штаты Америки,
the United Kingdom — Соединенное Королевство,
the Rocky Mountains — Скалистые горы.
Слайд 16
![Handling context-free words If the name includes both a proper](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-15.jpg)
Handling context-free words
If the name includes both a proper name
and a common name, the former is transcribed while the latter is either translated or transcribed or both:
the Atlantic Ocean - Атлантический океан,
Kansas City— Канзас-сити,
New Hampshire - Нью-Хемпшир,
Firth of Clyde — залив Ферт-оф-Кпайд.
Слайд 17
![Handling context-free words Transcription: Iowa – Айова (не Иова) Ohio](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-16.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Transcription:
Iowa – Айова (не Иова)
Ohio – Огайо (не Огио,Охио)
Transliteration:
Illinois
– Иллинойс (но не Иллиной)
Michigan – Мичиган (но не Мишиган)
Kentucky – Кентукки (но не Кентакки)
Слайд 18
![Handling context-free words Names of political parties, trade unions and](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-17.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Names of political parties, trade unions and similar bodies
are usually translated word-for-word (with or without a change in the word-order):
the Republican Party — республиканская партия,
the United Automobile Workers Union — Объединенный npoфсоюз рабочих автомобильной промышленности,
the Federal Bureau of Investigation - Федеральное бюро расследований.
Слайд 19
![Handling context-free words Terminological words are also relatively context-free though](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-18.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Terminological words are also relatively context-free though the context
often helps to identify the specific field to which the term belongs.
The context may also help to understand the meaning of the term in the text when it can denote more than one specific concept.
Слайд 20
![Handling context-free words For instance, in the US political terminology](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-19.jpg)
Handling context-free words
For instance, in the US political terminology the term
"state" - a national state or one of the states within a federal entity.
"Both the state and Federal authorities were accused of establishing a police state."
In the first case the term "state" is contrasted with "Federal" and will be translated as «штат», while in the second case it obviously means «государство».
Слайд 21
![Handling context-free words As a rule, English technical terms (as](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-20.jpg)
Handling context-free words
As a rule, English technical terms (as well as
political terms and terms in any other specific field) have their permanent equivalents in the respective Russian terminological systems:
magnitude — величина, oxygen - кислород, surplus value - прибавочная стоимость, Embassy — посольство, legislation — законодательство.
Слайд 22
![Many Russian equivalents have been formed from the English terms](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-21.jpg)
Many Russian equivalents have been formed from the English terms by
transcription or loan translations:
computer — компьютер, electron -электрон,
Congressman — конгрессмен, impeachment — импичмент,
shadow cabinet — «теневой кабинет», nuclear deterrent — ядерное устрашение.
Слайд 23
![Handling context-free words Quite a few among them are international](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-22.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Quite a few among them are international terms:
theorem
— теорема,
television — телевидение,
president — президент,
declaration — декларация,
diplomacy — дипломатия.
Слайд 24
![Handling context-free words In some cases there are parallel forms](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-23.jpg)
Handling context-free words
In some cases there are parallel forms in Russian:
one formed by transcription and the other, so to speak, native,
e.g.: резистор and сопротивление,
бустер and ускоритель,
индустрия and промышленность,
тред-юнион and профсоюз,
лидер and руководитель.
Слайд 25
![Handling context-free words Two common causes of translation errors: First,](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-24.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Two common causes of translation errors:
First, English and
Russian terms can be similar in form but different in meaning.
A "decade" is not «декада», an "instrument" is not «инструмент», and a "department" in the United States is not «департамент».
(false friends of translator!!)
Слайд 26
![Handling context-free words Second, the translator should not rely on](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-25.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Second, the translator should not rely on the "inner
form" of the English term to understand its meaning or to find a proper Russian equivalent for it is often misleading.
A "packing industry is not «упаковочная» but «консервная промышленность»,
"conventional armaments" are not «условные» but «обычные вооружения»
and a "public school" in Britain is not «публичная» or «общедоступная» but «частная школа».
Слайд 27
![Handling context-free words Translation of technical terms puts a premium](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-26.jpg)
Handling context-free words
Translation of technical terms puts a premium on the
translator's knowledge of the subject-matter of ST.
He must take great pains to get familiar with the system of terms in the appropriate field and make good use of technical dictionaries and other books of reference.
Слайд 28
![HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS All words have meanings of their own](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-27.jpg)
HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS
All words have meanings of their own which
are defined in dictionaries but the context may specify or modify the word's meaning, neutralize or emphasize some part of its semantics.
And before looking for an equivalent, the translator has to make a careful study of the context to identify the contextual meaning of the word that should be rendered in translation.
Слайд 29
![HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS Most of the words are polysemantic, that](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-28.jpg)
HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS
Most of the words are polysemantic, that is, they
have several meanings.
As a rule, the word is used in the sentence in one of its meanings and the context must show what meaning has been selected by the speaker and cut off all other meanings irrelevant for the particular act of communication.
Слайд 30
![HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS If somebody complains that ‘Few Europeans speak](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-29.jpg)
HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS
If somebody complains that ‘Few Europeans speak Mandarin", the
context shows that it is the variant of the Chinese language and not a Chinese imperial official or the Chinese fruit.
Слайд 31
![HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS No less important is the role of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-30.jpg)
HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS
No less important is the role of the context
in translating the words with a wide range of reference whose equivalents are too numerous to be listed in any dictionary.
Rate – 14 meanings in the dictionary.
Слайд 32
![HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS Many English words have no regular equivalents,](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-31.jpg)
HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS
Many English words have no regular equivalents, and a
number of techniques has been suggested for rendering the meanings of such equivalent-lacking words in TT.
(Some new-coined words in the source text or names of objects or phenomena unknown to the TL community (the so-called "realia").
Слайд 33
![HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS When new words come into being to](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-32.jpg)
HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS
When new words come into being to denote new
objects or phenomena, they naturally cannot have regular equivalents in another language.
Therefore the translator coming across a new coinage has to interpret its meaning and to choose the appropriate way of rendering it in his translation.
Слайд 34
![HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS "In many European capitals central streets have](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-33.jpg)
HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS
"In many European capitals central streets have been recently
pedestrianized.”
1-st, to recognize the origin of "pedestrianize" which is coined from the word "pedestrian" — «пешеход» and the verb-forming suffix -ize.
Слайд 35
![HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS 2-nd, to realize the impossibility of a](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-34.jpg)
HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS
2-nd, to realize the impossibility of a similar formation
in Russian (опешеходить!) and to use a semantic transformation: «движение транспорта было запрещено», «улицы были закрыты для транспорта» or «улицы были отведены только для пешеходов».
Слайд 36
![Equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia The translator tries](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-35.jpg)
Equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia
The translator tries to
transfer the name to TL by way of borrowing, loan word or approximate equivalents.
Many English words have been introduced in Russian in this way:
«бейсбол» (baseball), «небоскреб» (skyscraper), «саквояжники» (carpet baggers), etc.
Слайд 37
![Equivalent-lacking words Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-36.jpg)
Equivalent-lacking words
Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however,
still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text.
“Filibustering", "baby-sitter", "know-how", and many others.
Слайд 38
![Equivalent-lacking words We are the not-wanteds. (neologism) Wanted + s](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-37.jpg)
Equivalent-lacking words
We are the not-wanteds. (neologism)
Wanted + s = derived from
the adj. noun in plural form
Мы-то как раз здесь и не нужны.
Нам-то здесь как раз и не место.
Слайд 39
![Equivalent-lacking words Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-38.jpg)
Equivalent-lacking words
Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions and prepositions
which are often used differently from their apparent equivalents in Russian and are, in fact, equivalent-lacking.
Such common conjunctions as "when, if, as, once, whichever" and some others are not infrequently the cause of errors in translation and should be most carefully studied.
Слайд 40
![Equivalent-lacking words The same situation can be observed in case](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-39.jpg)
Equivalent-lacking words
The same situation can be observed in case of productive
English "semi-suffixes" as -minded, -conscious, -oriented, -manship,etc.
Such cases force the translator to resort to some semantic transformation.
Слайд 41
![HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS There are words in the source](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-40.jpg)
HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
There are words in the source and target
languages which are more or less similar in form.
Such words are of great interest to the translator since he is naturally inclined to take this formal similarity for the semantic proximity and to regard the words that look alike as permanent equivalents.
Слайд 42
![HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Very few international words have the](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-41.jpg)
HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
Very few international words have the same meanings
in different languages.
“Parliament, theorem, diameter" and their Russian counterparts «парламент, теорема, диаметр».
Слайд 43
![HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Astronomy - астрономия Biology - биология](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-42.jpg)
HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
Astronomy - астрономия
Biology - биология
Computer - компьютер
System -
система
Million - миллион
Слайд 44
![HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS In most cases, however, the semantics](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-43.jpg)
HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
In most cases, however, the semantics of such
words in English and in Russian does not coincide and they should rather be named "pseudointernational".
Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors.
Слайд 45
![HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS For that reason they are often](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-44.jpg)
HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
For that reason they are often referred
to as the translator's false friends.
"decade, complexion, lunatic” and the like.
(Десятилетие, цвет лица, сумасшедший).
Слайд 46
![TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Accurately - точно Activity – учреждение, деятельность](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-45.jpg)
TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
Accurately - точно
Activity – учреждение, деятельность
Aggressive – напористый, целеустремленный
Agony
- скорбь
Artist - художник
Aspirant - претендент
Exploit - использовать
Слайд 47
![TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Figure – цифра, человек Fortune – состояние,](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-46.jpg)
TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
Figure – цифра, человек
Fortune – состояние, богатство
Insult - оскорбление
Intelligent
– умный, разумный
Master – хозяин, главный
Mixture - смесь
Pioneer - первооткрыватель
Pretend – притворяться, делать вид
Слайд 48
![TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Public - общественный Routinе – запланированный, заведенный](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-47.jpg)
TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS
Public - общественный
Routinе – запланированный, заведенный порядок
Specific – конкретный,
заданный
Sympathy – сочувствие, жалость
Typical – характерный, обычный
Universal – общий, всеобщий
Слайд 49
![Lexical transformations Lexical transformations are not simple special methods of translation.](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-48.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Lexical transformations are not simple special methods of translation.
Слайд 50
![Lexical transformations They are the methods of logical thinking by](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-49.jpg)
Lexical transformations
They are the methods of logical thinking by means of
which we convey meanings of foreign words in the context and find their analogues in the language of translation which do not coincide with a dictionary.
Слайд 51
![Reasons for making LT There are four reasons for using](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-50.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
There are four reasons for using lexical transformations:
different
languages choose different features of the same phenomenon or notion in the meaning of the word,
e.g. glasses- очки
school leaver - выпускник
Слайд 52
![Reasons for making LT differences in the semantic structure of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-51.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
differences in the semantic structure of the word.
e.g.
brittle-хрупкий, ломкий (English word is wider)
additional meaning: brittle temper – вспыльчивый характер, brittle manner – нервная манера;
but “хрупкое здоровье” - delicate health (not brittle health).
Слайд 53
![Reasons for making LT Heavy – 1) тяжелый (вес, пища,](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-52.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
Heavy – 1) тяжелый (вес, пища, вода. бедствие,
известие, бремя, удар и др.)
2) сильный (дождь, гроза)
3) обложенный (небо)
4) бурный (море)
5) интенсивный (уличное движение)
6) обильный (урожай, снегопад)
Слайд 54
![Reasons for making LT 7) густой (туман) 8) вязкий, глинистый](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-53.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
7) густой (туман)
8) вязкий, глинистый (дорога, почва)
9) буйный
(растительность)
10) жирный (линия)
11) серьезный, толстый, солидный)
12) серьезный, большой (ответственность)
13) скучный, неинтересный (постановка, лит. произведение)
14) строгий, суровый (отец, дядя, человек)
15) невыносимый (жизнь)
16) обременительный (налог)
Слайд 55
![Reasons for making LT different norms of combinability. e.g. trains](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-54.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
different norms of combinability.
e.g. trains run – поезда
ходят;
rich feedings- щедрое угощение;
worst earthquake – сильное землетрясение;
rich sunlight – яркий солнечный свет;
rich memory – цепкая память;
Слайд 56
![Reasons for making LT Blue calculating stare – холодный оценивающий](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-55.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
Blue calculating stare – холодный оценивающий взгляд;
Full attack
– наступление по всему фронту или крупномасштабная акция нападок;
To gain heavily – одержать крупную победу;
To be deadly serious – быть крайне серьезным.
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![Reasons for making LT there are traditional for each language](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-56.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
there are traditional for each language usage of
words or word combinations.
It can be different clichés, orders and so on.
e.g. no smoking- курить запрещено
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![Reasons for making LT A word may be more widely](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-57.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
A word may be more widely used in
one language, while in another it may have a narrow or even terminological meaning.
The choice of one of the meanings of a word depends merely upon the environment of a given word.
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![Reasons for making LT It is often the context that](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-58.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
It is often the context that makes the
translator choose the right correspondence in the TL, either stylistically marked or unmarked.
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![Reasons for making LT The choice of a correspondence may](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-59.jpg)
Reasons for making LT
The choice of a correspondence may depend upon
different connotations of a word.
In case of polysemy everything depends upon the environment of the word which usually motivates the meaning of the word.
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![Definition Translation transformation is deliberate deviation of structural and semantic](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-60.jpg)
Definition
Translation transformation is deliberate deviation of structural and semantic parallelism between
the source and translation texts.
Transformations can be lexical, grammatical and lexical-grammatical.
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![Translation transformations](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-61.jpg)
Translation transformations
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![Lexical transformations: Transcription/transliteration; Descriptive way of translation; Word-for-word translation; Concretization;](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-62.jpg)
Lexical transformations:
Transcription/transliteration;
Descriptive way of translation;
Word-for-word translation;
Concretization;
Compensation;
Generalization;
Antonymic translation;
Functional substitution;
Logical (sense) development.
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![Lexical transformations Concretization is a linguistic case when the SL](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-63.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Concretization is a linguistic case when the SL word or
word combination with wide primary meaning is replaced by the TL word or word combination with narrow meaning.
e.g. Have you had your meal?
Вы уже позавтракали?
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![Lexical transformations Generalization is a case when the SL word](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-64.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Generalization is a case when the SL word with some
special meaning is substituted for the TL word with general (wide) semantic meaning.
e.g. He visits Jane every weekend.
Он навещает Джейн каждую неделю.
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![Lexical transformations Logical development is the replacement of one notion](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-65.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Logical development is the replacement of one notion by another
provided that they are connected as cause and consequence.
e.g. acid test – лакмусовая бумажка.
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![Lexical transformations Antonymic translation is a complex system of lexical-grammatical](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-66.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Antonymic translation is a complex system of lexical-grammatical substitutions in
the process of which affirmative sentences and positive constructions are substituted for the TL negative ones, or one word for its antonym.
e.g. Never drink unboiled water – пейте только кипяченую воду.
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![Lexical transformations Compensation is the complex replacement by means of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-67.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Compensation is the complex replacement by means of which the
information lost in one place of the SL text is rendered in another and quite often by different units in the TL text.
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![Lexical transformations We resort to compensation in order to achieve](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-68.jpg)
Lexical transformations
We resort to compensation in order to achieve stylistic and
emotional charge of the original text.
e.g. entailment (запутанность, затруднительное положение)
перевод: «когда тебе прищемят хвост».
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![Lexical transformations Descriptive way of translation- is usually used together](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-69.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Descriptive way of translation- is usually used together with transcription
and used to translate terms, unique objects, special cultural notions.
e.g. krujalo - wing-shaped base of cupola of the wooden church.
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![Lexical transformations Functional substitution- is used, when no one of](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-70.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Functional substitution- is used, when no one of the analogues
given in the dictionary suit in a particular context.
It is used while translating neologisms or words which are not fixed in the dictionaries.
e.g. French window - стеклянные двери.
Mushroom millionaire – ч-к, который быстро разбогател.
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![Lexical transformations Transcription/Transliteration- is used, when we reproduce each phoneme](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-71.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Transcription/Transliteration- is used, when we reproduce each phoneme letter of
the SL by means of phonemes or letters of the TL.
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![Lexical transformations We usually transcribe or transliterate proper and geographical](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-72.jpg)
Lexical transformations
We usually transcribe or transliterate proper and geographical names, sport
teams, titles of periodicals, names of firms, corporations, etc.
e.g. Minnesota- Миннесота,
Michigan – Мичиган.
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![Lexical transformations Word-for-word translation- when we reproduce not the phonetic](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-73.jpg)
Lexical transformations
Word-for-word translation- when we reproduce not the phonetic structure but
elements of the word-for-word combination when components of the combination are translated by respective elements of TL.
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![Lexical transformations e.g. Supreme Court- Верховный Суд The united States of America – Соединенные Штаты Америки.](/_ipx/f_webp&q_80&fit_contain&s_1440x1080/imagesDir/jpg/13556/slide-74.jpg)
Lexical transformations
e.g. Supreme Court- Верховный Суд
The united States of America –
Соединенные Штаты Америки.