Lexical stylistic devices презентация

Questions for discussion
Linguistic imagery
Galperin’s classification of lexical devices

The verbal image is a pen-picture of a thing, idea, person expressed in a figurative way, i.e. By words used in their contextual meaning.
E.g. a bridge for ‘transition from past to future, from bad to good, from danger to rescue’

In rhetoric the verbal image is described as a complex phenomenon, a double picture generated by linguistic means, which is based on the co-presence of different things active together:
the direct thought – the tenor (T)
the figurative thought – the vehicle (V)
E.g. She (T) is a bird of passage (V)

(I.A. Arnold) The structure of a verbal image also includes:
the ground of comparison (G) – the similar feature of T and V;
the relation between T and V;
the type of identification / comparison (the type of trope)

T G R V Trope
She is transient like a bird of passage (simile)

I.R. Galperin divides images into three categories:
Visual: It was a feast of colour.
Aural (acoustic): He sprang to the machine, which was now going pocketa-pocketa-queep-pocketa-queep.
Relational: a man of great dignity

Classification of lexical devices by I.R. Galperin
Group 1. Interaction of different types of lexical meaning:
Dictionary (logical) and contextual meanings: METAPHOR, METONYMY, IRONY
Primary and derivative logical meanings (of a polysemantic word): ZEUGMA, PUN
Logical and emotive meanings: OXYMORON, EPITHET
Logical and nominative meanings: ANTONOMASIA

Classification of lexical devices by I.R. Galperin
Group 2. Intensification of a feature: HYPERBOLE, SIMILE, PERIPHRASIS
Group 3. Peculiar use of set-expressions: CLICHÉS; PROVERBS AND SAYINGS; QUOTATIONS; ALLUSIONS; DECOMPOSITION OF SET PHRASES.

Two types of transference are distinguished depending on the two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process:

transference based on resemblance (similarity). This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor.
The term ‘metaphor’ means transference of some quality from one object to another.
Unlike in simile the ground of comparison is never stated openly.
E.g. She is like a bird of passage (simile)
E.g. She is a bird of passage (metaphor)

Simple metaphors contain only one vehicle: E.g His life was a tragedy.
Sustained (prolonged)metaphors occur whenever one metaphorical statement, creating an image, is followed by another, containing a continuation, or logical development of the previous one:
E.g. His life was a tragedy written in the terms of knock-about farce.

According to the degree of originality:
genuine metaphors which are absolutely unexpected or unpredictable;
trite metaphors (= dead metaphors) which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language.

Personification
Is a variety of metaphor in which human properties are attributed to lifeless (or inanimate) objects – mostly to abstract notions. The formal indication of personification may be:
capitalizing:
E.g. If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster.
The use of pronouns he or she instead of it:
E.g. Life is hard and Nature takes sometimes a terrible delight in torturing her children.

the use of verbs and adjectives that originally stand for the actions and qualities of people:
E.g. The Tower Bridge raised its two arms.

2) linguistic metonymy – transference based on contiguity.
The two objects may be associated together because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common function, of some material and an object which is made of it.

According to the relation between the tenor and the vehicle the following types of metonymy are differentiated:
1) The abstract stands for the concrete: But then he did not really want any of these people, did not want company for company’ sake. What he really wanted was Love, Romance, a Wonderful Girl of his own.

2) the container is mentioned instead of its contents: He sipped one more bottle (of whisky).
3) the material instead of the thing made: She was glancing through his water colours.
4) the maker stands for the thing made: He adores Motzart.
5) The instrument put for the agent: His brush can be easily recognized.
6) A part is put for the whole (synechdoche): There were long legs all around.

Zeugma (каламбур) is the use of a word which must be understood in two different ways at the same time in order to make sense, i.e. the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred.
Ex.: The bread was baking, and so was I.

Pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It is the clever or humorous use of a word that has more than one meaning, or of words that have different meanings but sound the same.
e.g. It’s not my principle (‘general rule of conduct’) to pay the interest (‘money paid for use of money lent’), and it’s not my interest (‘advantage, profit’) to pay the principal (‘the original sum lent’).
Puns are often used in riddles and jokes.

Irony is a stylistic device based on the contrast between the literal meaning and the intended meaning: one thing is said and the opposite is implied.
Ex.: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design.
In “How smart of you!” where, due to the intonation pattern, the word ‘smart’ conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification. It rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.

Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect.

Epithet
It’s a word or phrase that contains an expressive characteristic of an object, especially in order to give praise or criticism.
The epithet is based on metaphor and thus creating an image. Ex.:
a thrilling story;
a cutting smile.

The epithet is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence.
The epithet is
subjective;
evaluative.

The difference between the logical attribute and evaluative attribute:
the logical attribute is purely objective, non-evaluating. It is descriptive and indicates an inherent or prominent feature of the thing.
Logical attributes indicate those qualities of the objects which may be regarded as generally recognized. Ex.:
white snow,
round table,
pale complexion.

Attributes which do not point to inherent qualities of the objects are subjectively evaluative. Ex.:
wild wind,
loud ocean.

Epithets may be classified into
semantic;
structural.

Semantic epithets
Semantic epithets may be further divided into two groups:
a) those associated with the noun following;
b) those unassociated with the noun following.

Associated epithets are those which point to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: the idea expressed in the epithet is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. The associated epithet immediately refers the mind to the concept in question due to some actual quality of the object it is attached to.
Ex.: dark forest, careful attention.

Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature which may be so unexpected as to strike the reader by its novelty.
Ex.: voiceless sands.
The adjective here does not indicate any property inherent in the object ‘sand’. It imposes a property on it which is fitting only in the given circumstances. It may seem strange, unusual, or even accidental.

Structural epithets
Structural epithets can be viewed from the angle of
a) composition;
b) distribution.

From the point of view of their composition structural epithets may be divided into
a) simple,
b) compound,
c) phrase,
d) sentence.

Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives.
Compound epithets are built like compound adjectives.
A phrase and even a whole sentence may become an epithet if the main formal requirement of the epithet is maintained in its attributive use. Ex.: a little man with a Say-nothing-to-me expression on his face.

Oxymoron
It’s a device which combines in one phrase two words (usu. noun + adjective) whose meanings are opposite and incompatible.
Ex.: sweet sorrow; a deafening silence; a low skyscraper.

Antonomasia (переименование)
It’s a device which consists in the use of a proper name instead of a common name or vice versa.
Ex.: Mister Know-all;
Miss Sharp;
He is the Napoleon of crime.
Antonomasia is regarded as a subtype of periphrasis and a subtype of metonymy.